Massachusetts Curriculum Frameworks for Science and Technology -- Strand 3: Physical Sciences (Chemistry and Physics)

1. Differentiate between weight and mass, recognizing that weight is the amount of gravitational pull on an object.
• Mass and Weight
  http://www.beyondbooks.com/psc91/4e.asp
  

2. Differentiate between volume and mass. Define density.

3. Recognize that the measurement of volume and mass requires understanding of the sensitivity of measurement tools (e.g., rulers, graduated cylinders, balances) and knowledge and appropriate use of significant digits.

4. Explain and give examples of how mass is conserved in a closed system.

5. Recognize that there are more than 100 elements that combine in a multitude of ways to produce compounds that make up all of the living and nonliving things that we encounter.
• Patterns in Chemistry AND ALL FOCUS TOPICS
  http://www.beyondbooks.com/psc92/2.asp
  

6. Differentiate between an atom (the smallest unit of an element that maintains the characteristics of that element) and a molecule (the smallest unit of a compound that maintains the characteristics of that compound).
• Atoms and Their Structure
  http://www.beyondbooks.com/psc92/1e.asp
  
• Molecules
  http://www.beyondbooks.com/psc92/1f.asp
  

7. Give basic examples of elements and compounds.
• Classification of Matter
  http://www.beyondbooks.com/psc92/1c.asp
  
• It's Elementary
  http://www.beyondbooks.com/psc92/1d.asp
  

8. Differentiate between mixtures and pure substances.
• Classification of Matter
  http://www.beyondbooks.com/psc92/1c.asp
  

9. Recognize that a substance (element or compound) has a melting point and a boiling point, both of which are independent of the amount of the sample.
• State and Phase Changes AND ALL FOCUS TOPICS
  http://www.beyondbooks.com/psc92/9.asp
  

10. Differentiate between physical changes and chemical changes.
• Describing Matter
  http://www.beyondbooks.com/psc92/1b.asp
  

11. Explain and give examples of how the motion of an object can be described by its position, direction of motion, and speed.
• The Notion of Motion
  http://www.beyondbooks.com/psc91/3.asp
  
• How Far? Distance and Displacement
  http://www.beyondbooks.com/psc91/3a.asp
  
• How Fast? Speed and Velocity
  http://www.beyondbooks.com/psc91/3b.asp
  

12. Graph and interpret distance vs. time graphs for constant speed.
• Position-Time Graphs
  http://www.beyondbooks.com/psc91/3d.asp
  

13. Differentiate between potential and kinetic energy. Identify situations where kinetic energy is transformed into potential energy and vice versa.
• Calculating Kinetic and Potential Energy
  http://www.beyondbooks.com/psc91/7d.asp
  
• Conservation of Energy
  http://www.beyondbooks.com/psc91/7e.asp
  
• Work-Energy Theorem
  http://www.beyondbooks.com/psc91/7f.asp
  

14. Recognize that heat is a form of energy and that temperature change results from adding or taking away heat from a system.

15. Explain the effect of heat on particle motion through a description of what happens to particles during a change in phase.

• State and Phase Changes
  http://www.beyondbooks.com/psc92/9.asp
  

16. Give examples of how heat moves in predictable ways, moving from warmer objects to cooler ones until they reach equilibrium.

Chemistry Learning Standards for a Full First-Year Course in Grade 10 or 11

1.1 Identify and explain some of the physical properties that are used to classify matter, e.g., density, melting point, and boiling point. *

1.2 Explain the difference between mixtures and pure substances. *

• Classification of Matter
  http://www.beyondbooks.com/psc92/1c.asp
  

1.3 Describe the four states of matter (solid, liquid, gas, plasma) in terms of energy, particle motion, and phase transitions. *
• State and Phase Changes AND ALL FOCUS TOPICS
  http://www.beyondbooks.com/psc92/9.asp
  

1.4 Distinguish between chemical and physical changes.
• Describing Matter
  http://www.beyondbooks.com/psc92/1b.asp
  

Broad Concept: An atom is a discrete unit. The atomic model can help us to understand the interaction of elements and compounds observed on a macroscopic scale.

2.1 Trace the development of atomic theory and the structure of the atom from the ancient Greeks to the present (Dalton, Thompson, Rutherford, Bohr, and modern theory).
• Fool's Gold: From Alchemy to Chemistry
  http://www.beyondbooks.com/psc92/1.asp
  
• Atoms and Their Structure
  http://www.beyondbooks.com/psc92/1e.asp
  
• Molecules
  http://www.beyondbooks.com/psc92/1f.asp
  
• Atomic Properties
  http://www.beyondbooks.com/psc92/1g.asp
  

2.2 Interpret Dalton's atomic theory in terms of the Laws of Conservation of Mass, Constant Composition, and Multiple Proportions.
• The Mole AND ALL FOCUS TOPICS
  http://www.beyondbooks.com/psc92/6.asp
  
• Avogadro's Hypothesis
  http://www.beyondbooks.com/psc92/10f.asp
  

2.3 Identify the major components of the nuclear atom (protons, neutrons, and electrons) and explain how they interact. *
• Atomic Properties
  http://www.beyondbooks.com/psc92/1g.asp
  

2.4 Understand that matter has properties of both particles and waves.

2.5 Using Bohr's model of the atom interpret changes (emission/absorption) in electron energies in the hydrogen atom corresponding to emission transitions between quantum levels.

2.6 Describe the electromagnetic spectrum in terms of wavelength and energy; identify regions of the electromagnetic spectrum.

2.7 Write the electron configurations for elements in the first three rows of the periodic table.

2.8 Describe alpha, beta, and gamma particles; discuss the properties of alpha, beta, and gamma radiation; and write balanced nuclear reactions.

2.9 Compare nuclear fission and nuclear fusion and mass defect. *

2.10 Describe the process of radioactive decay as the spontaneous breakdown of certain unstable elements (radioactive) into new elements (radioactive or not) through the spontaneous emission by the nucleus of alpha or beta particles. Explain the difference between stable and unstable isotopes.

2.11 Explain the concept of half-life of a radioactive element, e.g., explain why the half-life of C14 has made carbon dating a powerful tool in determining the age of very old objects.

Broad Concept: Periodicity of physical and chemical properties relates to atomic structure and led to the development of the periodic table. The periodic table displays the elements in order of increasing atomic number.

3.1 Explain the relationship of an element's position on the periodic table to its atomic number and mass. *
• Atomic Properties
  http://www.beyondbooks.com/psc92/1g.asp
  
• The Periodic Table
  http://www.beyondbooks.com/psc92/2a.asp
  

3.2 Use the periodic table to identify metals, nonmetals, metalloids, families (groups), periods, valence electrons, and reactivity with other elements in the table.
• Chemical Families
  http://www.beyondbooks.com/psc92/2b.asp
  

3.3 Relate the position of an element on the periodic table to its electron configuration.

3.4 Identify trends on the periodic table (ionization energy, electronegativity, electron affinity, and relative size of atoms and ions).

• Periodic Trends
  http://www.beyondbooks.com/psc92/2e.asp
  

Broad Concept: Atoms form bonds by the interactions of their valence electrons.

4.1 Explain how atoms combine to form compounds through both ionic and covalent bonding. *
• Types of Chemical Bonding AND ALL FOCUS TOPICS
  http://www.beyondbooks.com/psc92/3.asp
  

4.2 Draw Lewis dot structures for simple molecules.
• The Octet Rule: Eight Is Great!
  http://www.beyondbooks.com/psc92/4a.asp
  

4.3 Relate electronegativity and ionization energy to the type of bonding an element is likely to undergo.
• More Electron Basics
  http://www.beyondbooks.com/psc92/2d.asp
  

4.4 Predict the geometry of simple molecules and their polarity (valence shell electron pair repulsion).
• Molecular Geometry
  http://www.beyondbooks.com/psc92/4c.asp
  
• Electron Group Geometry
  http://www.beyondbooks.com/psc92/4d.asp
  

4.5 Identify the types of intermolecular forces present based on molecular geometry and polarity.
• Molecular Polarity
  http://www.beyondbooks.com/psc92/4e.asp
  

4.6 Predict chemical formulas based on the number of valence electrons.

4.7 Name and write the chemical formulas for simple ionic and molecular compounds, including those that contain common polyatomic ions.

• Chemical Names and Formulas AND ALL FOCUS TOPICS
  http://www.beyondbooks.com/psc92/5.asp
  

Broad Concept: The conservation of atoms in chemical reactions leads to the ability to calculate the mass of products and reactants.

5.1 Balance chemical equations by applying the law of conservation of mass. *
• Writing Chemical Equations
  http://www.beyondbooks.com/psc92/7b.asp
  
• Balancing Equations
  http://www.beyondbooks.com/psc92/7c.asp
  

5.2 Recognize synthesis, decomposition, single displacement, double displacement, and neutralization reactions.
• Reaction Types AND ALL FOCUS TOPICS
  http://www.beyondbooks.com/psc92/8.asp
  

5.3 Understand the mole concept in terms of number of particles, mass, and gaseous volume.
• The Mole
  http://www.beyondbooks.com/psc92/6.asp
  

5.4 Determine molar mass, percent compositions, empirical formulas, and molecular formulas.
• The Mole AND ALL FOCUS TOPICS
  http://www.beyondbooks.com/psc92/6.asp
  

5.5 Calculate mass-mass, mass-volume, volume-volume, and limiting reactant problems for chemical reactions.

5.6 Calculate percent yield in a chemical reaction.

Broad Concept: The behavior of gases can be explained by the Kinetic Molecular Theory.

6.1 Using the kinetic molecular theory, explain the relationship between pressure and volume (Boyle's law), volume and temperature (Charles' law), and the number of particles in a gas sample (Avogadro's hypothesis).
• Boyle's Law
  http://www.beyondbooks.com/psc92/10c.asp
  
• Charles' Law
  http://www.beyondbooks.com/psc92/10d.asp
  
• Avogadro's Hypothesis
  http://www.beyondbooks.com/psc92/10f.asp
  
• Maxwell's Kinetic Theory of Gases
  http://www.beyondbooks.com/psc92/10h.asp
  

6.2 Explain the relationship between temperature and average kinetic energy.
• Maxwell's Kinetic Theory of Gases
  http://www.beyondbooks.com/psc92/10h.asp
  

6.3 Perform calculations using the ideal gas law.
• Ideal Gas Law
  http://www.beyondbooks.com/psc92/10g.asp
  

6.4 Describe the conditions under which a real gas deviates from ideal behavior.
• Ideal Gas Law
  http://www.beyondbooks.com/psc92/10g.asp
  

6.5 Interpret Dalton's empirical Law of Partial Pressures and use it to calculate partial pressures and total pressures.
• Law of Partial Pressures (Dalton's Law)
  http://www.beyondbooks.com/psc92/10b.asp
  

6.6 Use the combined gas law to determine changes in pressure, volume, or temperature.
• Combined Gas Law
  http://www.beyondbooks.com/psc92/10e.asp
  

Broad Concept: Solids, liquids, and gases dissolve to form solutions.

7.1 Describe the process by which solutes dissolve in solvents. *

7.2 Identify and explain the factors that affect the rate of dissolving, i.e., temperature, concentration, and mixing. *

7.3 Describe the dynamic equilibrium that occurs in saturated solutions.

7.4 Calculate concentration in terms of molarity, molality, and percent by mass.

7.5 Use a solubility curve to determine saturation values at different temperatures.

7.6 Calculate the freezing point depression and boiling point elevation of a solution.

7.7 Write net ionic equations for precipitation reactions in aqueous solutions.

• Precipitation
  http://www.beyondbooks.com/psc92/8d.asp
  

Broad Concept: Acids and bases are important in numerous chemical processes that occur around us, from industrial processes to biological ones, from the laboratory to the environment.

8.1 Define Arrhenius' theory of acids and bases in terms of the presence of hydronium and hydroxide ions, and Bronsted's theory of acids and bases in terms of proton donor and acceptor, and relate their concentrations to the pH scale. *
• Acid/Base
  http://www.beyondbooks.com/psc92/8e.asp
  

8.2 Compare and contrast the nature, behavior, concentration and strength of acids and bases.

• a. Acid-base neutralization

• b. Degree of dissociation or ionization

• c. Electrical conductivity

8.3 Identify a buffer and explain how it works.

8.4 Explain how indicators are used in titrations and how they are selected.

8.5 Describe an acid-base titration. Identify when the equivalence point is reached and its significance.

8.6 Calculate the pH or pOH of aqueous solutions using the hydronium or hydroxide ion concentration.

Broad Concept: Chemical equilibrium is a dynamic process that is significant in many systems (biological, ecological and geological). Chemical reactions occur at different rates.

9.1 Write the equilibrium expression and calculate the equilibrium constant for a reaction.

9.2 Predict the shift in equilibrium when the system is subjected to a stress (LeChatelier's principle).

9.3 Identify the factors that affect the rate of a chemical reaction (temperature, concentration) and the factors that can cause a shift in equilibrium (concentration, pressure, volume, temperature).

9.4 Explain rates of reaction in terms of collision frequency, energy of collisions, and orientation of colliding molecules.

9.5 Define the role of activation energy in a chemical reaction.

Broad Concept: The driving forces of chemical reactions are energy and entropy. This has important implications for many applications (synthesis of new compounds, meteorology, and industrial engineering).

10.1 Interpret the law of conservation of energy.

10.2 Explain the relationship between energy transfer and disorder in the universe.

10.3 Analyze the energy changes involved in physical and chemical processes using calorimetry.

10.4 Apply Hess's law to determine the heat of reaction.

Broad Concept: Oxidation-reduction reactions occur by electron transfer and constitute a major class of chemical reactions. Examples of redox reactions occur everywhere; their consequences are experienced daily.

11.1 Describe the chemical processes known as oxidation and reduction.
• Oxidation-Reduction
  http://www.beyondbooks.com/psc92/8f.asp
  

11.2 Assign oxidation numbers.
• Name That Compound!
  http://www.beyondbooks.com/psc92/5a.asp
  

11.3 Balance oxidation-reduction equations by using half-reactions.

11.4 Identify the components, and describe the processes that occur in an electrochemical cell.

11.5 Explain how a typical battery, such as a lead storage battery or a dry cell, works.

11.6 Compare and contrast voltaic and electrolytic cells and their uses.

11.7 Calculate the net voltage of a cell given a table of standard reduction potentials.

Physics Learning Standards for a Full First-Year Course in Grade 9 or 10

An asterisk (*) indicates core standards for integrated courses.

1. Motion and Forces

Broad Concept: Newton's laws of motion and gravitation describe and predict the motion of most objects.

1.1 Distinguish between vector quantities (velocity, acceleration, and force) and scalar quantities (speed and mass).
• Vectors
  http://www.beyondbooks.com/psc91/5a.asp
  

1.2 Illustrate how to represent vectors graphically and be able to add them graphically.
• Direction and Adding of Vectors and the Resultants
  http://www.beyondbooks.com/psc91/5b.asp
  
• Vector Components and Resolution: Part 1
  http://www.beyondbooks.com/psc91/5c.asp
  
• Vector Components and Resolution: Part 2
  http://www.beyondbooks.com/psc91/5d.asp
  

1.3 Distinguish between, and solve problems involving, velocity, speed, and constant acceleration.
• The Notion of Motion
  http://www.beyondbooks.com/psc91/3.asp
  
• How Far? Distance and Displacement
  http://www.beyondbooks.com/psc91/3a.asp
  
• How Fast? Speed and Velocity
  http://www.beyondbooks.com/psc91/3b.asp
  
• Acceleration
  http://www.beyondbooks.com/psc91/3c.asp
  

1.4 Create and interpret graphs of motion (position vs. time, speed vs. time, velocity vs. time, constant acceleration vs. time).
• Position-Time Graphs
  http://www.beyondbooks.com/psc91/3d.asp
  
• Velocity-Time Graphs
  http://www.beyondbooks.com/psc91/3e.asp
  

1.5 Explain the relationship between mass and inertia. *
• Newton's First Law
  http://www.beyondbooks.com/psc91/4a.asp
  

1.6 Interpret and apply Newton's first law of motion. *
• Newton's First Law
  http://www.beyondbooks.com/psc91/4a.asp
  

1.7 Interpret and apply Newton's second law of motion to show how an object's motion will change only when a net force is applied. *
• Meaning of Force
  http://www.beyondbooks.com/psc91/4b.asp
  
• Determining Net Force
  http://www.beyondbooks.com/psc91/4c.asp
  
• Newton's Second Law
  http://www.beyondbooks.com/psc91/4d.asp
  

1.8 Use a free body force diagram with only co-linear forces to show forces acting on an object, and determine the net force on it.
• Determining Net Force
  http://www.beyondbooks.com/psc91/4c.asp
  

1.9 Qualitatively distinguish between static and kinetic friction, what they depend on and their effects on the motion of objects.

1.10 Interpret and apply Newton's third law of motion.

• The Third Law: Forces in Pairs
  http://www.beyondbooks.com/psc91/4f.asp
  
• Action-Reaction
  http://www.beyondbooks.com/psc91/6d.asp
  

1.11 Understand conceptually Newton's law of universal gravitation. *
• Planetary Motion AND ALL FOCUS TOPICS
  http://www.beyondbooks.com/psc91/9.asp
  

1.12 Identify appropriate standard international units of measurement for force, mass, distance, speed, acceleration, and time, and explain how they are measured.
• Units
  http://www.beyondbooks.com/psc91/2b.asp
  
• Dimensional Analysis
  http://www.beyondbooks.com/psc91/2c.asp
  

Broad Concept: The laws of conservation of energy and momentum provide alternate approaches to predict and describe the movement of objects.

2.1 Interpret and provide examples that illustrate the law of conservation of energy. *
• Conservative and Nonconservative Forces
  http://www.beyondbooks.com/psc91/7c.asp
  
• Conservation of Energy
  http://www.beyondbooks.com/psc91/7e.asp
  

2.2 Provide examples of how energy can be transformed from kinetic to potential and vice versa.
• Calculating Kinetic and Potential Energy
  http://www.beyondbooks.com/psc91/7d.asp
  
• Conservation of Energy
  http://www.beyondbooks.com/psc91/7e.asp
  

2.3 Apply quantitatively the law of conservation of mechanical energy to simple systems.
• Conservation of Energy
  http://www.beyondbooks.com/psc91/7e.asp
  

2.4 Describe the relationship among energy, work, and power both conceptually and quantitatively.
• Work, Energy, and Power
  http://www.beyondbooks.com/psc91/7.asp
  
• Working Hard?
  http://www.beyondbooks.com/psc91/7a.asp
  
• What is Energy?
  http://www.beyondbooks.com/psc91/7b.asp
  
• Feel the Power
  http://www.beyondbooks.com/psc91/7g.asp
  

2.5 Interpret the law of conservation of momentum and provide examples that illustrate it. Calculate the momentum of an object.
• Momentum AND ALL FOCUS TOPICS
  http://www.beyondbooks.com/psc91/6.asp
  

2.6 Identify appropriate standard international units of measurement for energy, work, power, and momentum.

Broad Concept: Heat is energy that is transferred between bodies that are at different temperatures by the processes of convection, conduction, and/or radiation.

3.1 Relate thermal energy to molecular motion. *

3.2 Differentiate between specific heat and heat capacity.

3.3 Explain the relationship among temperature change in a substance for a given amount of heat transferred, the amount (mass) of the substance, and the specific heat of the substance.

3.4 Recognize that matter exists in four phases, and explain what happens during a phase change.

• State and Phase Changes AND ALL FOCUS TOPICS
  http://www.beyondbooks.com/psc92/9.asp
  

Broad Concept: Waves carry energy from place to place without the transfer of matter.

4.1 Differentiate between wave motion (simple harmonic nonlinear motion) and the motion of objects (nonharmonic). *

4.2 Recognize the measurable properties of waves (e.g., velocity, frequency, wavelength) and explain the relationships among them. *

• Measuring Waves
  http://www.beyondbooks.com/psc91/10b.asp
  

4.3 Distinguish between transverse and longitudinal waves.
• Types of Waves
  http://www.beyondbooks.com/psc91/10a.asp
  

4.4 Distinguish between mechanical and electromagnetic waves. *
• Types of Waves
  http://www.beyondbooks.com/psc91/10a.asp
  

4.5 Interpret and be able to apply the laws of reflection and refraction (qualitatively) to all waves.

4.6 Recognize the effects of polarization, wave interaction, and the Doppler effect.

• The Doppler Effect
  http://www.beyondbooks.com/psc91/11b.asp
  

4.7 Explain, graph, and interpret graphs of constructive and destructive interference of waves.

4.8 Explain the relationship between the speed of a wave (e.g., sound) and the medium it travels through.

4.9 Recognize the characteristics of a standing wave and explain the conditions under which two waves on a string or in a pipe can interfere to produce a standing wave.

• Standing Waves
  http://www.beyondbooks.com/psc91/10d.asp
  

Broad Concept: Stationary and moving charge particles result in the phenomenon known as electricity and magnetism.

5.1 Recognize the characteristics of static charge, and explain how a static charge is generated.

5.2 Interpret and apply Coulomb's law.

5.3 Explain the difference in concept between electric forces and electric fields.

5.4 Develop a qualitative and quantitative understanding of current, voltage, resistance, and the connection between them.

5.5 Identify appropriate units of measurement for current, voltage, and resistance, and explain how they are measured.

5.6 Analyze circuits (find the current at any point and the potential difference between any two points in the circuit) using Kirchoff's and Ohm's laws.

Broad Concept: Oscillating electric or magnetic fields can generate electromagnetic waves over a wide spectrum of energies.

6.1 Describe the electromagnetic spectrum in terms of wavelength and energy, and be able to identify specific regions such as visible light. *

6.2 Explain how the various wavelengths in the electromagnetic spectrum have many useful applications such as radio, television, microwave appliances, and cellular telephones.

6.3 Calculate the frequency and energy of an electromagnetic wave from the wavelength.

6.4 Recognize and explain the ways in which the direction of visible light can be changed.